eLearning, also termed online learning or web-based learning, is “the delivery of education (all activities relevant to instructing, teaching, and learning) through various electronic media. The electronic medium could be the Internet, intranets, extranets, satellite TV, video/audio tape, and/or CD ROM” (Koohang & Harman, 2005, p. 77). Koohang, Riley, Smith & Schreurs (2009) note that while eLearning is increasing in popularity, it is still important to ensure that it does in fact result in learning, and therefore an understanding of learning theory is essential for framing eLearning design.
This post provides an overview of three basic theories of learning – behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism. It looks at the application of these theories to eLearning design, and in particular constructivism and the use of wikis and scaffolding. Throughout this post, reference is made to a number of learning activities completed as part of the CQUniversity ICTs for Learning Design course as examples of eLearning activities.
Behaviourism
As the name suggests, behaviourism concentrates on observing and measuring human behaviour. It focuses on the importance of the consequences of behaviour, and contends that actions that are followed by reinforcement are more likely to recur in the future. In the behaviourist approach, learning is equated with observable changes in behaviour, and consequently performance (Conole, Dyke, Oliver & Seale, 2004; Ertmer & Newby, 1993).
In an eLearning context, applications such as online preassessments of learners, and interactive activities that provide learners with feedback about progress and performance are consistent with the behaviourist approach. There were elements consistent with a behavioural approach in the ICTs for Learning Design course. For example, course participants had an end goal for Week 1 (create a series of blog entries), this was broken down into learning activities, and then into steps and questions. This allowed students to follow their progress toward achieving the end goal.
Ertmer and Newby (1993) suggest that a behaviourist approach to learning is probably most suitable for tasks requiring a low degree of processing, such as recalling facts. On the other hand, the behaviourist approach is less applicable in situations where learners are required to gain a more in depth understanding of concepts.
Cognitivism
Mergel (1998) suggests cognitive approaches are appropriate for tasks that require a higher level of processing, such as reasoning or problem solving, where learners are required to organise and relate new information with existing knowledge. Cognitivism is based on the thought processes behind behaviour, and concentrates on how information is received, organised, stored and retrieved. In this approach, learning is conceptualised as changes in states of knowledge, rather than as changes in behaviour. As the focus is internal cognitive structures, from a cognitivist approach each learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes and values can also influence the learning process (Conole, Dyke, Oliver & Seale, 2004; Ertmer & Newby, 1993).
The cognitivist approach could be applied to an eLearning environment through an emphasis on structuring, organising and sequencing information to help learners’ integrate it with their existing knowledge. A technique consistent with cognitivism, which was present in the online coursework of ICTs for Learning Design, is to analyse, decompose and simplify knowledge into basic building blocks. This allows learners to assimilate and accommodate new information as quickly and easily as possible (Ertmer & Newby, 1993).
The focus of both behavioural and cognitive approaches is of acquiring an understanding of an external reality. Ertmer & Newby (1993) note that, in this sense, both of these approaches assume that “knowledge is mind-independent and can be ‘mapped’ onto a learner” (p. 62). There is little focus on the context within which learners acquire knowledge and understanding. The behavioural and cognitivist approaches are likely to be less suitable for use in situations where problems are complex or ill-defined.
Constructivism
Constructivism learning theory assumes that learning occurs through creating meaning from experience. Rather than simply being passive recipients of teachings, learners are seen as actively constructing their own knowledge. In constructivism, both the learner and the environment are important, and it is the interaction between the two that creates knowledge. Rather than concentrating on retrieval of discrete facts, constructivists contend that knowledge and understanding are developed by the ongoing, situated use of information (Ertmer & Newby, 1993; Koohang, Riley, Smith & Schreurs, 2009).
Koohang, Riley, Smith and Schreurs (2009) cite research which supports the efficacy of constructivism as a learning theory compatible with, and appropriate for, eLearning design. In response to such research support, Koohang (2009) (cited in Koohang, Riley, Smith & Schreurs, 2009) proposed a framework for designing eLearning based on the elements of constructivism. According to this framework, the design of eLearning activities should include opportunities for:
· collaboration;
· cooperation;
· multiple perspectives;
· real world examples;
· scaffolding;
· self-reflection;
· multiple representations of ideas, and;
· social negotiation.
This framework for designing eLearning activities appears very closely aligned with the design of the online coursework for the ICTs for Learning Design course. In particular, the coursework involved (1) multiple opportunities for students to contribute to wikis, and (2) contributions to these wikis and other course activities were scaffolded for students.
The ICTs for Learning Design course has involved students contributing to three wikis: Profile wiki; Learning Theories wiki; and Mobile Phones in Education wiki. From a constructivist point of view, through collaboration, students become actively engaged in the learning process, exchange ideas and produce knowledge. As an alternative to face-to-face interaction, Web 2.0 technologies (such as blogs and wikis) can facilitate collective knowledge through user interaction (Giannoukos et al., 2008). Employing wikis in the coursework for ICTs for Learning Design is consistent with Koohang’s (2009) framework for designing constructivist based eLearning activities, in that it provides opportunity for collaboration, cooperation, gaining multiple perspectives and social negotiation.
The coursework for ICTs for Learning Design also provided scaffolding for students’ contributions to the three wikis, as well as for other course activities. Scaffolding refers to when a teacher provides guidance to learners, using tools, strategies and guides to support learners in attaining a higher level of understanding. The teacher provides this guidance with the right quantity and quality of assistance to suit learners’ current understanding (Brush & Saye, 2002; Luckin, 2008).
In ICTs for Learning Design, contributions to the wikis were scaffolded by providing learners with a template to fill in, and requesting learners post contributions to wikis using thinking routines (namely, a PMI analysis and de Bono’s six hats) to frame their response. These scaffolds provided learners with guidance about how to contribute to the wiki. Furthermore, using the thinking routines to frame contributions guided learners to think more deeply about the issues. Relating this to Bloom’s (Revised) Taxonomy, rather than remaining at the Understanding stage, learners were required to work in the Analysing and Evaluating stages (for more information on these stages, see Churches, 2011). This use of scaffolding is again consistent with Koohang’s (2009) ideas of how to design of eLearning activities from a constructivist approach.
While there is research to support the application of constructivism to eLearning design, there is potential for the approach to be in contrast to some learning styles. Felder and Brent (2005) note that learner's approach to learning can vary on four different dimensions: (1) the type of information they prefer to perceive (sensory or intuitive); (2) the type of sensory information most effectively perceived (visual or verbal); (3) how they prefer to process information (active or reflective); and (4) how they progress toward understanding (sequential or global). In applying the elements of Koohang's (2009) framework for designing eLearing from a constuctivist point of view, it is important to keep the diversity of learners in mind. For example, constructivism emphasises the importance of collaboration and cooperation between learners. Collaborating and discussing issues with others is a preference and natural tendency of those classified as 'active learners' (Felder & Brent, 2005). The 'reflective learner' with the tendency to process information through introspection rather than discussion, may be less comfortable with this approach. To help learners with that tendency collaboration could perhaps be less direct.
Recognising learner diversity in terms of learning styles is important not only in designing constructivist based eLearning, but eLearning activities in general. For example, activities should contain a balance of verbal (written and spoken) and visual (pictures, demonstrations, flowcharts) information. They should also achieve a balance between concentrating on practical considerations, facts and data, as well as looking at more theoretical, abstract aspects of issues. Their design could also be improved by allowing learner's the option to progress through the learning journal in a sequential, step-by-step manner, or to take a more holistic approach to the material. Taking measures such as these will help to cater for learner differences as outlined by Felder and Brent (2005).
There were some minor aspects in coursework for ICTs for Learning Design consistent with behaviourism and cognitivism, however the approach to instructional design appears to be largely influenced by constructivism. The learning activities, including the wikis and the scaffolding provided, fit with Koohang’s (2009) ideas for the design of eLearning from a constructivist approach. ICTs for Learning Design is a postgraduate course and the course requirements demand a high level of processing, another reason to support the suitability of constructivism for the online coursework. Research supports the appropriateness of the constructivist learning theory for application to eLearning. However, Margel (1998) warns against relying on one single learning theory. Constructivism might be most appropriate, most often. At the same time, it is important to keep the other theories in mind, and always match learning theories with the content and learners’ characteristics.
References
Brush, T. A. & Saye, J. W. (2002). A summary of research exploring hard and soft scaffolding for teachers and students using a multimedia support learning environment. The Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 1(2), 1-12. Retrieved from http://www.ncolr.org/jiol/issues/pdf/1.2.3.pdf
Giannoukos, I. Lykourentzou, I., Mpardis, G., Nikolopoulos, V., Loumos, V. & Kayafas, E. (2008). Collaborative E-learning Environments Enhanced by Wiki Technologies. Paper presented at the 1st International Conference on Pervasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments. Retrieved from http://cpe.kmutt.ac.th/~fay/files/prob/wiki.pdf
Koohang, A. (2009). A learner-centered model for blended learning design. International Journal of Innovation and Learning, 6(1), 76-91.
